Cicero discusses the concept of labor mainly in two books:

a) De officiis - On Duties

b) Tuscolanae Disputationes

De Officiis

The De Officiis, divided into 3 books, is Cicero's final philosophical work and serves as a treatise on ethics dedicated to his son Marcus, who was studying in Greece at the time. This Ciceronian work comprises a doctrinal exposition on how to manage various events in life. It contains the admonitions that the author advises to observe in every situation, including work.

In book I, Cicero discusses the concept of "honestum" (meaning honest), which is carried out in the so-called four fundamental virtues (wisdom - justice - fortitude - temperance), and provides a clear distinction between working professions that should be condemned and those that should be praised.

On one side, he condemns the tax collectors and usurers' services: "Primum improbantur ii quaestus, qui in odia hominum incurrunt, ut portitorum ut feneratorum".

On the other side, he points out those professions which are to be considered honourable and that require the greatest skills and are very useful to society, such as the profession of doctor, architect, and teacher of liberal arts: "Quibus autem artibus aut prudentia maior inest aut non mediocris utilitas quaeritur, ut medicina, ut architectura, ut doctrina rerum honestarum, eae sunt iis, quorum ordini conveniunt, honestae".

He concludes that agriculture as an occupation - among all those aimed at economic profit - is the most noble, productive, enjoyable and honourable for a free man: "Omnium autem rerum, ex quibus aliquid adquiritur, nihil est agri cultura melius, nihil uberius, nihil dulcius, nihil homine libero dignius".

In book 2, Cicero treats the concept of "utile" (meaning useful). He believed that the right actions of usefulness must always be exercised in accordance with the four fundamental virtues mentioned above.

A careful and thorough analysis and reflection on the contents of the book further reveals that for Cicero, justice is not only necessary but above all useful because it can produce benefits for everyone about work too.

Cicero thinks that even for those who carry out economic activities and are involved in commercial negotiations, "justice is necessary to manage everything" and is so important that even those who live by bad actions and misdeeds cannot live without some small measure of justice: "…contrahendisque negotiis implicantur, iustitia ad rem gerendam necessaria est, cuius tanta vis est, ut ne illi quidem, qui maleficio et scelere pascuntur, possint sine ulla particula iustitiae vivere". 

In book 3, Cicero strives to resolve the dilemma of choice of what has been treated in the two preceding books, between honesty and usefulness and which is better. With admirable skill of expression and examples, he demonstrates that between "honestum" and "utile" there is no contradiction: the first directly produces the second.

Cicero also believes that we can only have true usefulness from actions which are directed towards the community's welfare and not exclusively for personal gain. He considers work to be a means of achieving this result. Consequently, he believes that those who work should not only be fair but should always behave honestly and never put their own interests before those of the community, because only in this way can they obtain the maximum benefit and results from their work.

Tuscolanae Disputationes

The Tuscolanae Disputationes is Cicero's masterpiece, written after the death of his daughter Tullia, where he tries to find a cure for the fear of death and pain, also through hard work, which is divided into 5 books:

1. On contempt of death

2. On pain bearing 

3. On grief of mind

4. On other mind perturbations 

5. Whether virtue alone could be enough for a happy life

To understand Cicero's concept of work in this piece, we must analyse book 2 in detail, in which he conducts an in-depth study of the concepts of "labor" (meaning hard work) and "dolor" (meaning pains and difficulties in life), sketching out distinctions and points of contact between the two. 

Cicero argues that "labor" and "dolor" are undoubtedly similar but not equal and that nevertheless there is some difference between them: "Interest aliquid inter laborem et dolorem. Sunt finitima omnino, sed tamen differt aliquid".

Furthermore, for Cicero getting used to the "labor" is essential, because becoming accustomed to hard work and sacrifice makes it easier to endure suffering: "consuetudo enim laborum perpessionem dolorum efficit faciliorem". 

Eventually, however, the "dolor" becomes lower than the "labor" because with the habit of working hard to achieve a result, the "labor" nullifies the "dolor". 

In this regard, it is important to mention also Virgil's views on the value and merit of working hard in the Georgics: "Labor omnia vincit improbus et duris urgens in rebus egestas".  With hard work, it’s possible to overcome any adversity and achieve any result. (In more modern terms we could say "no pain, no gain")

In conclusion, combining what is set out in both of Cicero's works, we can deduce his complete and definitive thinking on labor: the fulfilment of hard work brings two fundamental benefits, it helps human beings to tolerate the afflictions and difficulties that life inevitably cause to everyone, and if carried out correctly, it facilitates and enables the realization of everyone's interests. 

This article is the result of Giuseppe Foti's personal studies and research